Scientific Management

Management has been a crucial human activity since time immemorial. Ever since human beings began forming social organizations with the aim of accomplishing particular objectives, management has been essential in ensuring the coordination of individual efforts.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Scientific Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As a matter of fact, the society has constantly depended on group efforts, which have increased with time, raising the significance and complexity of managerial work. Several management approaches have come up with the aim of elucidating how supervision should be executed within organizations. This paper aims at critically analyzing scientific management, shedding light on its principles and characteristics while establishing its level of applicability and inappropriateness in modern management. Definitions of Scientific Management The phrase scientific manageme nt is coined from two words; scientific and management. The term ‘scientific’ refers to the logical investigative and objective approach whereas ‘management’ refers to the process of ensuring that duties are executed through others. According to Fredrick Winslow Taylor, scientific management refers to the art of establishing the best and most cost-effective approach of doing things within an organization. It involves deciding what to do and who to do a particular task and the most appropriate way to perform a given task within the organization. According to him, scientific management refers to the application of scientific practices to management which include; selection, staffing, training, posting the employees and the most cost-effective means of doing a particular task (SWATI, 2011). As Harlow Person puts it, scientific management typifies a form of arrangement and practice in a purposive and combined effort which is based on the codes or laws that are formulated via the method of scientific analysis, as opposed to using strategies which are formulated in an experimental and informal manner of trial and error method (SWATI, 2011).Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Jones argues that, scientific management refers to a set of clearly set regulations that are laid down by those in the managerial positions which should be applied to harmonize an organization in order to realize profound strictness for maximum productivity (SWATI, 2011). Lioyd, Dodd and zynch posits that, scientific management aims at getting the most out of the systems, employees and resources while influencing productivity with regards to positioning and planning of the employees towards the ultimate to achieve utmost productivity (SWATI, 2011). According to Peter F. Drucker, scientific management refers to a structured study of work within an organizat ion, the evaluation of the work in its basic form and the logical upgrading of the employees (SWATI, 2011). Precisely, scientific management, also known as Taylorism is a theory of management that applies the standards and practices of science in management (Hounshell, 1984). It evaluates and produces workflows with an aim of improving economic effectiveness, particularly on labor output. The theory was among the earliest approaches that applied science in the field of management. It was pioneered by Frederick Winslow Taylor in the early 1890s and was mostly applied in the manufacturing industries. Its influence hit the highest point around1910 after which an epoch of opposition and syncretism with conflicting or complementary thoughts cropped up (Beissinger, 1988). While scientific management as a distinctive theory had become out-dated by the 1940s, most of its aspects are still used within the industrial sector as well as managerial positions up to date. Such aspects include eval uation, synthesis, consistence, prudence, work values, competence, eliminating the unnecessary factors of production, consistency of exceptional practices, disregarding of egoistic customs and training of employees (Taylor, 1911).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Scientific Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In his scientific management approach, Taylor held that the managers of his time depended so much on individual ingenuity of employees in order to attain utmost output. However, these expectations were hardly met (Taylor, 1911). In an attempt to prove that the employees’ productivity is often far much below their capabilities, he suggested that all managers should apply the four principles of scientific management which are as follows. Outline a ‘science’ in every aspect of an employee’s work, choose the employees in a scientific manner, train and build the employe es scientifically and enhance good-natured cooperation between the employees and the managers in order to facilitate effective execution of work (Beissinger, 1988). Principles of Scientific Management Science against Rule of Thumb According to F. Taylor, the rule of thumb was a practice that was commonly used before the coming of scientific management. According to him, the practice was supposed to be substituted with scientific knowledge within organizations. He argued that the practice of the rule of thumb laid more emphasis on sheer guesswork while scientific management entails strictness in formulating and performing all the aspects of a given task. According to this approach this can only be achieved through the application of meticulous scientific analysis. This involves precision in all the aspects of work such as consistency of work as well as different degrees of payment for a given level of work (Taylor, 1911). Harmony as Opposed to Discord Taylor maintained that, organiza tions should maintain harmony through collective action while discord should be avoided. Harmony ensures that the different groups of people within the organization work as a single unit leading to the accomplishment of an organization’s objectives. Harmony guarantees utmost understanding of all the stakeholders within an organization enhancing a mutual relationship amongst the members (Taylor, 1911).Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Co-operation vs. Individualism The approach of scientific management necessitates that all the different sections of an organization should combine forces with the aim of increased productivity. As a matter of fact, scientific management is based on reciprocated confidence, teamwork and benevolence. In order to achieve this, the employees as well as the management need to undergo a complete transformation with regards to their mental outlook. Taylor maintained that suspicion and enmity should be replaced with mutual confidence and friendliness respectively (Taylor, 1911). Characteristics of Scientific Management Development of Individual Employees for Competence and Success For maximum productivity, extra effort should be put in order to enhance the employees’ competence. While recruiting new employees, emphasis should be laid on the type of work and the competence of the employee towards a particular task, after which scientific training follows. The managers should employ i ncentive wage plan when dealing with individual employees. A combination of these efforts ensures that the employees attain their highest potential which leads to utmost success to both the individual and the company (Taylor, 1911). Standardization of Tools and Equipments According to scientific management, it is crucial to produce standard products and services and also bring about uniformity in the production of high quality goods and services. In fact, standardization should be applied with regards to the cost of production, equipments, tools, materials, duration, conditions and quantity of work (Taylor, 1911). Scientific Selection and Training of Workers The approach of scientific management demands that choosing and training employees should be done in a scientific method. This should be done with respect to their academic background, their wellbeing, experience, talents, physical fitness as well as intelligence. Appropriate training should then be offered with the help of qual ified personnel with respect to their ability and type of work (Taylor, 1911). Experimentation and Scientific Investigation The achievement of scientific management relies heavily upon research and investigation. It entails logical study, surveillance research, experimentation and exploration. In a contemporary organization, the most preeminent and most effective methods of doing work can only be achieved through continuous testing and scientific research (Taylor, 1911). Incentive Wage System Taylor supported a wage system that was in form of differential piece wages. This system entailed two different wages where employees who attained a given target within a given time limit were paid their wages at a higher rate per unit while those who could not meet the right standards within a given time limit were paid their wages at a lower rate per unit. In other words, the incentive wage system entails a substantial disparity in wages between those who are able to achieve or outdo a given target within a given time and those who do not (Hartness, 1912). Efficient attain system The approach of scientific management involves caution in determining the total cost of production and also the cost at every level of production. It is based on a cost-effective economy. While implementing an organization’s objectives, any needless factors of production are done away with in an attempt to achieve maximum production within minimum cost. The approach ensures minimum wastage in all the factors of production (SWATI, 2011). Scientific Allotment of Task Scientific management ensures that any task is delegated to the best employee available, depending on one’s ability and professional qualification for the particular task. Indeed, no matter how well an individual is competent, it is extremely difficult to execute all the tasks proficiently. For this reason, managers should cautiously establish the best individual for every job and the best job for every individual. This is because one is able to execute a given job most proficiently as long as it matches his preference, ability and qualifications (Head, 2005). Effectiveness of Scientific Management in Business Running Scientific management can be termed as the most established approach of designing the tasks of employees. The principles of this approach are the foundation of modern industrial and organizational production methods in job planning. These techniques entail making work practices more proficient, establishing the most appropriate means of executing the jobs and aligning the work flows (Noble, 1984). In addition, several contemporary management terminologies such as quality circles, reengineering, and total quality management can be traced back to scientific management. Moreover, employee and manager training which is common in modern companies was also an indispensable aspect of the principles of scientific management (Aitken, 1985). As a matter of fact, modern management borrows a lot of concepts from scientific management. Such concepts include; the use of incentives for excellent performance, planning of jobs with the use of proficient work procedures, choosing of employees depending on their abilities to execute specific tasks, training of employees to improve efficiency in their work and training the managers in order to effectively supervise the workers ( Aitken,1985). However, its tremendous achievements, Taylor’s scientific management approach failed to solve all the challenges experienced by the managers while supervising the employees as they execute their day to day work. This can be attributed to the intrinsic flaws of scientific management (Drury, 1915). These flaws include the idea of breaking down work into its basic constituents to achieve the accomplishment of the tasks by the employees as evaluated by the managers as well as the flaw of isolating the planning of work from the execution. According to some critics, these only made the emplo yees to gain more experience and routine other than knowledge and appreciation. The approach of scientific management has also been criticized for the discrepancy of the workers needs (Drury, 1915). Such criticisms with regards to Taylor’s approach of scientific management led to the development of other alternatives. This included the modern theories of management such as performance management approach. These theories included job enrichment as well as job enlargement. Job enrichment incorporates accomplishment, development, and appreciation prospects in the job while Job enlargement merges numerous tasks into a single task providing variety (Mullins, 2004). In Conclusion it is clear that the principles of scientific management are still applied in modern management. The rise of modern management approaches, and the criticism may not have been directed upon the principles of scientific management, but on scientific management that cropped up in the modern management schools of thoughts. Research indicates that, contemporary industrial production, quality circles, reengineering schemes, and total quality management innovations depend on workflow knowledge and other practices that mirror the first principle of scientific management. On the other hand, the modern recruitment system employed by the human resource personnel as well as the selection criteria reflects the second principle of scientific management while training and development of the employees and the managers can be seen in the third principle. Furthermore, several modern organizations call for mutual cooperation between the employees and the managers, representing the fourth principle of scientific management. For this reason, Taylor is still regarded highly by various management experts to date (SWATI, 2011). Reference List Aitken, J. (1985). Scientific Management in Action: Taylorism at Watertown  Arsenal, Princeton, NJ, USA: Princeton University Press. Beissinger, R. (1988).Scientific Management, Socialist Discipline, and  Soviet Power. London, UK: I.B. Tauris Co Ltd. Drury, B. (1915). Scientific Management: A History and Criticism, New York, NY, USA: Columbia University. Hartness, J. (1912).The human Factor in Works Management. London: McGraw-Hill. Head, S. (2005). The New Ruthless Economy: Work and Power in the  Digital Ag,.Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Hounshell, A. (1984). The Development of Manufacturing Technology in  The United States. Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Johns Hopkins University Press. Mullins, J. (2004). Management and Organizational Behavior. Financial Times–FT Press–Prentice-Hall–Pearson Education Ltd. Noble, F. (1984). Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial  Automation. New York, New York, USA: Knopf. SWATI, G. (2011). Meaning, Definition Characteristics and Features  Scientific Management. Web. Taylor, Frederick Winslow (1911).The Principles of Scientific Management. New York, NY, USA and Lo ndon, UK: Harper Brothers. This research paper on Scientific Management was written and submitted by user Nightmare to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. 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George Bush Essays - Bush Family, United States, Livingston Family

George Bush Essays - Bush Family, United States, Livingston Family George Bush George Bush Forty-First President 1989-1993 George Bush brought to the White House a dedication to traditional American values and a determination to direct them toward making the United States a kinder and gentler nation. In his Inaugural Address he pledged in a moment rich with promise to use American strength as a force for good. Coming from a family with a tradition of public service, George Herbert Walker Bush felt the responsibility to make his contribution both in time of war and in peace. Born in Milton, Massachusetts, on June 12, 1924, he became a student leader at Phillips Academy in Andover. On his 18th birthday he enlisted in the armed forces. The youngest pilot in the Navy when he received his wings, he flew 58 combat missions during World War II. On one mission over the Pacific as a torpedo bomber pilot he was shot down by Japanese antiaircraft fire and was rescued from the water by a U. S. submarine. He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for bravery in action. Bush next turned his energies toward completing his education and raising a family. In January 1945 he married Barbara Pierce. They had six childrenGeorge, Robin (who died as a child), John (known as Jeb), Neil, Marvin, and Dorothy. At Yale University he excelled both in sports and in his studies; he was captain of the baseball team and a member of Phi Beta Kappa. After graduation Bush embarked on a career in the oil industry of West Texas. Like his father, Prescott Bush, who was elected a Senator from Connecticut in 1952, George became interested in public service and politics. He served two terms as a Representative to Congress from Texas. Twice he ran unsuccessfully for the Senate. Then he was appointed to a series of high-level positions: Ambassador to the United Nations, Chairman of the Republican National Committee, Chief of the U. S. Liaison Office in the People's Republic of China, and Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. In 1980 Bush campaigned for the Republican nomination for President. He lost, but was chosen as a running mate by Ronald Reagan. As Vice President, Bush had responsibility in several domestic areas, including Federal deregulation and anti-drug programs, and visited scores of foreign countries. In 1988 Bush won the Republican nomination for President and, with Senator Dan Quayle of Indiana as his running mate, he defeated Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis in the general election. Bush faced a dramatically changing world, as the Cold War ended after 40 bitter years, the Communist empire broke up, and the Berlin Wall fell. The Soviet Union ceased to exist; and reformist President Mikhail Gor bachev, whom Bush had supported, resigned. While Bush hailed the march of democracy, he insisted on restraint in U. S. policy toward the group of new nations. In other areas of foreign policy, President Bush sent American troops into Panama to overthrow the corrupt regime of General Manuel Noriega, who was threatening the security of the canal and the Americans living there. Noriega was brought to the United States for trial as a drug trafficker. Bush's greatest test came when Iraqi President Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait, then threatened to move into Saudi Arabia. Vowing to free Kuwait, Bush rallied the United Nations, the U. S. people, and Congress and sent 425,000 American troops. They were joined by 118,000 troops from allied nations. After weeks of air and missile bombardment, the 100-hour land battle dubbed Desert Storm routed Iraq's million-man army. Despite unprecedented popularity from this military and diplomatic triumph, Bush was unable to withstand discontent at home from a faltering economy, rising violence in inner cities, and continued high deficit spending. In 1992 he lost his bid for reelection to Democrat William Clinton. Bibliography None available

Society likes to put us into little boxes. Male, female, black, white, Essay

Society likes to put us into little boxes. Male, female, black, white, homosexual, heterosexualeverything exists as a binary opposition, with no room for the - Essay Example Using a broad explanation, binary opposition is often a hierarchical tool that is used to pit one social group against another. It is generally a pair of theoretical opposites (Wikipedia.org) that justifies human thought tendencies, such as heterosexual-homosexual opposition, which often allows one side to label the other using stereotypical guidelines. Whenever you have a binary opposition, one of the definitions is usually marked in a negative kind of way. In the case of the hetero-homosexual binarism, invariably homosexual is the one that is marked (Fairyington, 2004). Across the nation, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender communities are facing the challenge of advancing civil rights on the local and state levels (Otis, 2004), often finding small successes in legal battles while still plagued with societal binary opposition. For those individuals with a minority-based sexual identity, such as the homosexual, finding a middle ground within society poses more of a challenge. Sexuality research currently needs to reexamine critically its constructs of sexual orientation and identify for theoretical inconsistencies and simplistic assumptions about the nature of sexual desire continue to plague it (Paul, 1985). To highlight this statement, the "simplistic assumptions" are often driven by societys lack of education or exposure to the homosexual group and become markedly opposed to them based on conformity issues (peer to peer), misconstrued religious connotations, or falling victim to long-running, historical prejudices based on speculation rather than facts. Sexual identity is defined as an organized set of perceptions that an individual maintains about the meaning of their sexual attractions and desires, directed toward forming a sense of self within existing social categories (Frankel, 2004). With this in mind, recognizing